— Overview
A microorganism, in this essay, is a living thing smaller than 0.1 mm, below what the eye can see. Fungi, bacteria, and viruses are named as the familiar kinds. The writer opens with three episodes, then turns to two papers. Of a recent year in Japan, dated from the essay’s own time of writing, it cites 71 deaths and 291 infections from so-called flesh-eating bacteria, an acute fulminant hemolytic streptococcal infection due to group A streptococcus, first reported in the United States in 1987 and first confirmed in a Japanese patient in 1992.
Japan’s National Institute of Infectious Diseases, in the same account, put infections at about 200 a year from 2011, and said that of 712 patients reported from 2012 to 2015, 207 — 29 percent — died, 76 percent of those 207 within three days of onset, and 41 percent on the day of onset or the next day. A doctor at Toho University’s Omori medical center, Yoshizawa, is quoted as saying that necrosis in a hand or foot can advance in an hour, and that some of the infected had diabetes or another illness, while some had no underlying disease.
Those figures stay in that period; this page does not add a later official tally. Four years earlier, as the essay dates it, without a calendar year in the extracted text, a United States episode of steroid injections contaminated with a fungus left 15 dead and about 200 ill, in 13 states. The CDC named Aspergillus in the injections. The Massachusetts health department, of July to September in that account, said 17,676 vials had gone to 76 clinics in 23 states, and the New England Compounding Center recalled the products.
Meningitis is explained as inflammation of the membranes around the brain and spinal cord, from bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi. A third opening episode is the MERS outbreak the essay recounts, without a calendar year in the extracted text: 186 confirmed patients, of whom 38 died, infection or passage through 106 medical institutions, and 16,693 people isolated at home or in screening. The government published hospital names only after dozens of confirmed cases.
After the ninth emergency committee, WHO said the outbreak did not meet the conditions for a public-health emergency of international concern. A joint assessment named a weak understanding of MERS among staff and the public, infection control in hospitals that was not in good order, and crowded emergency rooms and multi-bed wards. The first paper, on climate and aflatoxin B1 in Europe, cites the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: in the hundred years from 1906 to 2005, global mean temperature rose 0.74°C, with models for the twenty-first century then in the range of about 2 to 5°C.
Those figures stay with that report. About 300 mycotoxins are named as known in the paper, affecting about 25 percent of the world’s food crops; about 20 aflatoxins are known, of which B1, B2, G1, and G2 are the main ones, and B1 the most common and the most toxic. Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, common in soil, make the toxin most readily at a moisture of 16 percent or more, a relative humidity of 80 to 85 percent or more, and 25 to 30°C, mainly in the humid tropics and subtropics.
In 2009, of 669 RASFF actions, 638 were tied, directly or indirectly, to aflatoxin. EFSA’s Emerging Risks Unit looked at changing patterns in maize, wheat, and rice, and at aflatoxin B1 risk under climate scenarios. The second paper assesses air in a university-hospital lobby. It finds a significant seasonal difference in microbial contamination. Factors named for airborne mold include temperature, humidity, the hour and the season of measurement, the age of the lobby, where outdoor air is supplied, how many filtration stages it passes, and how many people are in the lobby.
Filters then in place, the paper says, could not effectively remove some particles of 1 to 3 μm. It gives the then-current U.S. EPA marks for PM2.5 as an annual 15.0 μg/m³ and a 24-hour 35, and Korea’s as an annual 25.0 and a 24-hour 50, set higher than the U.S. marks it cites; this page does not treat those marks as today’s limits. Augustowska and Dutkiewicz, in 2006, measured airborne bacteria and fungi in a Polish pneumonia ward and found bacterial concentrations lowest in winter, from December to February.
This page stays with those dated counts and with those two papers.
— Contents and key concepts
Opening episodes, left in their time
A microorganism, in this essay, is a living thing smaller than 0.1 mm. Fungi, bacteria, and viruses are named as the familiar kinds. Of a recent year in Japan, dated from the essay’s own time of writing, it cites 71 deaths and 291 infections from an acute fulminant hemolytic streptococcal infection, first reported in the United States in 1987 and first confirmed in Japan in 1992. The National Institute of Infectious Diseases put infections at about 200 a year from 2011, and said that of 712 patients reported from 2012 to 2015, 207 died. Those figures stay in that period.
Four years earlier, as the essay dates it, without a calendar year in the extracted text, steroid injections contaminated with Aspergillus left 15 dead and about 200 ill in the United States; 17,676 vials, in that account, had gone to 76 clinics in 23 states. The MERS outbreak the essay recounts, also without a calendar year here, is given as 186 confirmed patients, of whom 38 died, 106 medical institutions, and 16,693 people isolated. After the ninth emergency committee, WHO said the outbreak did not meet the conditions for an international public-health emergency.
Aflatoxin in a changing climate, and air in a hospital lobby
The first paper cites the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: from 1906 to 2005, global mean temperature rose 0.74°C, with twenty-first-century models then in the range of about 2 to 5°C. About 300 mycotoxins are named, and about 20 aflatoxins, of which B1 is the most common and the most toxic, made most readily by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus at 25 to 30°C and high moisture. In 2009, 638 of 669 RASFF actions were tied to aflatoxin.
The second paper finds a significant seasonal difference in microbial contamination in a university-hospital lobby, and names temperature, humidity, season, and occupancy among the factors for airborne mold. It gives then-current U.S. and Korean PM2.5 marks, which this page does not treat as today’s limits. In 2006, Augustowska and Dutkiewicz found bacterial concentrations lowest in winter in a Polish pneumonia ward. This page stays with those dated counts and with those two papers. The same Korean report, at fuller length, is on CampusDown.
Sources
- Microorganism: living thing <0.1 mm. Fungi, bacteria, viruses. Japan, a recent year as the essay dates it from its writing: 71 deaths, 291 infections, acute fulminant hemolytic streptococcal infection (group A); first reported in the U.S. in 1987, first Japanese patient in 1992. NIID: about 200 a year from 2011; 712 reported 2012–2015, 207 died (29%), 76% of those 207 within three days, 41% on the day of onset or the next. Yoshizawa, Toho University Omori: necrosis can advance in an hour; some had underlying disease, some none. Those figures stay in that period; no later official tally added. U.S., four years earlier as the essay dates it, no calendar year in the extract: 15 dead, about 200 ill in 13 states; CDC named Aspergillus in steroid injections; Massachusetts, July–September in that account, 17,676 vials to 76 clinics in 23 states; NECC recall. Meningitis: inflammation of the membranes around brain and cord. MERS outbreak as the essay recounts, no calendar year here: 186 confirmed, 38 died, 106 institutions, 16,693 isolated; hospital names published after dozens of confirmed cases; WHO after the ninth emergency committee, not a PHEIC; joint assessment: weak understanding, hospital control not in good order, crowded ERs and multi-bed wards. Aflatoxin paper: IPCC AR4, 1906–2005 +0.74°C, 21st-century models then about 2–5°C, left with that report. About 300 mycotoxins, ~25% of world food crops, as the paper states; ~20 aflatoxins, B1 B2 G1 G2, B1 most common and toxic. A. flavus and A. parasiticus; moisture ≥16%, RH 80–85% or more, 25–30°C; tropics and subtropics. RASFF 2009: 638 of 669 actions tied to aflatoxin. EFSA Emerging Risks Unit: patterns in maize, wheat, rice; B1 risk under climate scenarios. Hospital-lobby paper: significant seasonal difference; mold factors include temperature, humidity, hour, season, lobby age, outdoor-air supply, filtration stages, occupancy. Filters then in place could not effectively remove some 1–3 μm particles. Then-current PM2.5 marks as the paper states them: U.S. EPA annual 15.0 μg/m³, 24-hour 35; Korea annual 25.0, 24-hour 50 — not treated as today’s limits. U.S. outdoor NO2 24-hour 0.053 ppm, as stated. Augustowska and Dutkiewicz 2006, Polish pneumonia ward: bacterial concentrations lowest in winter (Dec–Feb). This page stays with those dated counts and those two papers.
Last updated: 14 November 2026
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